{"id":1390,"date":"2025-06-03T10:10:25","date_gmt":"2025-06-03T10:10:25","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/diznr.com\/?p=1390"},"modified":"2025-06-03T10:10:25","modified_gmt":"2025-06-03T10:10:25","slug":"data-structures-and-algorithms-pdf-based-on-introduction-to-algorithms-by-cormen-for-gate-b-tech-computer-engineering","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.reilsolar.com\/pdf\/data-structures-and-algorithms-pdf-based-on-introduction-to-algorithms-by-cormen-for-gate-b-tech-computer-engineering\/","title":{"rendered":"Data Structures and Algorithms PDF: Based on introduction to algorithms by Cormen For GATE\/B.Tech Computer Engineering"},"content":{"rendered":"

Data structures and algorithms pdf provided by me is my handwritten notes pdf based on the latest pattern of Gate\/PSU and B.E\/B.tech.
\nThis notes is helpful for all of the Computer science and Engineering students who is in undergraduate course and preparing for Graduate Appitude test in Engineering GATE.algorithms pdf, cormen, introduction to algorithms pdf, introduction to algorithms cormen pdf, algorithm notes pdf, introduction to algorithms, design and analysis of algorithms, data structures and algorithms pdf,Data Structures and Algorithms PDF: Based on introduction to algorithms by Cormen For GATE\/B.Tech Computer Engineering<\/p>\n

Data Structures and Algorithms PDF<\/b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/h1>\n

Problem <\/b>to <\/b>Program\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

Introduction\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

Performance <\/b>Evaluation\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

Sorting <\/b>Problem\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

Mathematical <\/b>Preliminaries\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

Asymptotic <\/b>Notation\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

DESIGN <\/b>AND <\/b>ANALYSIS <\/b>OF <\/b>ALGORITHM <\/b>Ti<\/span>c\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

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  1. 1<\/b>. <\/b>PROBLEM <\/b>TO <\/b>PROGRAM\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    Mathematical\u00a0<\/b>Model <\/b>Informal <\/b>a<\/b>lgor<\/b>ithm\u00a0<\/b>Abstract <\/b>Data <\/b>Type\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

    (<\/i><\/b>A<\/b>D<\/b>T<\/b>) <\/b>Ps<\/b>e<\/b>udo <\/b>Lang<\/b>u<\/b>a<\/b>g<\/b>e\u00a0<\/b>C<\/b>o<\/b>de\u00a0<\/b>Data <\/b>Structure\u00a0<\/b>(<\/span>DS<\/span>) <\/span>Program <\/b>(<\/b>C<\/b>–<\/b>P<\/b>r<\/b>ogram)\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

    prog<\/span>ra<\/span>m\u00a0<\/span>1<\/span>) <\/span>Model <\/span>the <\/span>problem <\/span>using <\/span>an <\/span>appropriate <\/span>mathematic <\/span>model <\/span>(<\/span>Informal <\/span>algorithm<\/span>)\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    2<\/span>) <\/span>T<\/span>h<\/span>e <\/span>informal <\/span>algorithm <\/span>is <\/span>written <\/span>in <\/span>pseudo <\/span>lang<\/span>u<\/span>a<\/span>ge\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    3<\/span>) <\/span>T<\/span>he <\/span>st<\/span>e<\/span>pwis<\/span>e <\/span>re<\/span>f<\/span>ineme<\/span>nt <\/span>of <\/span>p<\/span>seudo <\/span>la<\/span>n<\/span>guage give<\/span>s <\/span>va<\/span>rious <\/span>t<\/span>ypes <\/span>o<\/span>f <\/span>da<\/span>t<\/span>a <\/span>u<\/span>sed <\/span>and <\/span>Operations <\/span>to <\/span>be <\/span>performed <\/span>on <\/span>data<\/span>. <\/span>(<\/span>i<\/span>.<\/span>e<\/span>.<\/span>, <\/span>data <\/span>type<\/span>)\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    4<\/span>) <\/span>We <\/span>create <\/span>ADT <\/span>for <\/span>each <\/span>data <\/span>type.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    5<\/span>) <\/span>We <\/span>choose <\/span>an <\/span>appropriate <\/span>Data <\/span>Strucure <\/span>to <\/span>imp<\/span>lemen<\/span>t <\/span>eachzADI\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    6<\/span>) Finally <\/span>replace <\/span>informal <\/span>statements <\/span>in <\/span>pseudo <\/span>language <\/span>code <\/span>by <\/span>C<\/span>–<\/span>code\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    An <\/b>algorithm <\/b>is <\/span>a <\/span>f<\/span>inite <\/span>sequence <\/span>of <\/span>computational <\/span>steps <\/span>that <\/span>transform <\/span>the input <\/span>into <\/span>the <\/span>output <\/span>in <\/span>finite <\/span>numb<\/span>e<\/span>r <\/span>of <\/span>steps\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    A <\/b>data <\/b>type <\/b>is <\/span>a <\/span>collection <\/span>of <\/span>objects <\/span>and <\/span>a <\/span>set <\/span>of <\/span>operati<\/span>ons <\/span>that <\/span>act <\/span>on <\/span>those <\/span>objects\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    An <\/span>a<\/b>bstract <\/b>d<\/b>ata <\/b>t<\/b>yp<\/b>e <\/b>(<\/b>ADT<\/b>) <\/span>is <\/span>a <\/span>d<\/span>ata <\/span>type<\/span>, <\/span>that <\/span>is <\/span>organized in <\/span>s<\/span>uc<\/span>h <\/span>a <\/span>wa<\/span>y <\/span>that <\/span>the <\/span>specificatio<\/span>n <\/span>of <\/span>t<\/span>he <\/span>objects <\/span>and <\/span>t<\/span>he op<\/span>erations <\/span>o<\/span>n <\/span>t<\/span>h<\/span>e <\/span>objects <\/span>i<\/span>s <\/span>separated <\/span>from <\/span>the <\/span>representation <\/span>of <\/span>the <\/span>objects <\/span>and <\/span>the <\/span>implementation <\/span>of <\/span>the <\/span>operation<\/span>. <\/span>ADT <\/b>is <\/b>mathematical <\/b>m<\/i><\/b>ode<\/b>l <\/b>of <\/b>data <\/b>type\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

    A <\/b>dat<\/b>a <\/b>structure<\/b>(<\/b>DS<\/b>) <\/span>is <\/span>a <\/span>way <\/span>to <\/span>store <\/span>and <\/span>organize <\/span>data <\/span>in <\/span>order <\/span>to <\/span>facilitate <\/span>ac<\/span>c<\/span>ess <\/span>and <\/span>modificatio<\/span>n<\/span>s<\/span>. <\/span>No <\/span>single <\/span>data <\/span>structure <\/span>works <\/span>well <\/span>for <\/span>all <\/span>purposes<\/span>, <\/span>an<\/span>d <\/span>so <\/span>it <\/span>is <\/span>important <\/span>to <\/span>know <\/span>the <\/span>strengths <\/span>and limitations <\/span>of <\/span>several <\/span>of <\/span>the<\/span>m<\/span>. <\/span>W<\/span><\/i>e <\/span>use <\/span>DS <\/span>to <\/span>implement <\/span>ADT<\/span>:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    Pseudo <\/b>cod<\/b>e<\/span>: <\/span>Mixture <\/span>of <\/span>natural <\/span>lan<\/span>g<\/span>uage and <\/span>high <\/span>level <\/span>programming <\/span>lang<\/span>u<\/span>age <\/span>constructs <\/span>that <\/span>describes <\/span>algorithm\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    A <\/b>program <\/b>is <\/span>an <\/span>expression <\/span>of an <\/span>a<\/span>l<\/span>gorithm <\/span>in <\/span>a <\/span>programming <\/span>languag<\/span>e\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

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    1. 2<\/b>. <\/b>INTRODUCTION\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n
    2. 1<\/span>. <\/span>Non<\/span>–<\/span>Co<\/span>mputational <\/b>problem\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      A <\/span>problem <\/span>that <\/span>has <\/span>no <\/span>precise <\/span>and <\/span>simple <\/span>specification <\/span>Example<\/b>: <\/span>Convince <\/span>your <\/span>boss <\/span>for <\/span>salary <\/span>hike<\/span>; <\/span>convince <\/span>your <\/span>faculty <\/span>for <\/span>marks<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

        \n
      1. 2<\/b>. <\/b>Computational <\/b>problem\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Specification <\/span>of <\/span>input\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

        Specification <\/span>output <\/span>as <\/span>function <\/span>of <\/span>input\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

        Exampl<\/b>e<\/span>: <\/span>The <\/span>sorting <\/span>problem<\/span>:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

        Input<\/b>: <\/span>a <\/span>sequence <\/span><<\/span>al<\/span>, <\/span>a2<\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>,<\/span>an<\/span>> <\/span>of <\/span>n <\/span>numbers<\/span>. <\/span>Output<\/b>: <\/span>a <\/span>permutation <\/span><<\/span>al<\/span>, <\/span>a<\/span>2<\/span>,<\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>, <\/span>an <\/span>> <\/span>of <\/span>the <\/span>input <\/span>with <\/span>al <\/span><<\/span>= <\/span>a<\/span>2 <\/span><<\/span>= <\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>. <\/span><<\/span>= <\/span>an <\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

        RU <\/span>DESI<\/span>GN <\/span><\/i>AND <\/span>AN<\/span>ALYSIS <\/b>OF <\/b>ALGOR<\/b>I<\/i><\/b>THM\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

          \n
        1. 3<\/b>. <\/b>A<\/b>lg<\/b>orithm Definition\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          An <\/span>Al<\/span>g<\/span>orithm <\/span>is <\/span>well<\/span>–<\/span>defined computational <\/span>procedure <\/span>that <\/span>takes <\/span>some value<\/span>, <\/span>or <\/span>set <\/span>of <\/span>values <\/span>as <\/span>in<\/span>p<\/span>ut <\/span>and <\/span>produces <\/span>some <\/span>value<\/span>, <\/span>or <\/span>set <\/span>of <\/span>values <\/span>as <\/span>outpu<\/span>t<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

          Instanc<\/b>e<\/span>: <\/span>A <\/span>particular <\/span>input <\/span>called <\/span>an <\/span>instance <\/b>of <\/span>a <\/span>computational <\/span>problema <\/span>Exampl<\/b>e<\/span>: <\/span>The <\/span>input <\/span>sequence <\/span><<\/span>31<\/span>, <\/span>41<\/span>, <\/span>59<\/span>, <\/span>2<\/span>6<\/span>, <\/span>41 <\/span>58<\/span>> <\/span>is <\/span>an <\/span>instance <\/span>of <\/span>the <\/span>sorting <\/span>problem<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

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          1. 4<\/b>. <\/b>Algorithm <\/b>Characteristics\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            All <\/span>a<\/span>lg<\/span>orithms <\/span>should <\/span>satisfy <\/span>the <\/span>following <\/span>criteria<\/span>. <\/span>Input<\/b>: <\/span>Zero <\/span>or <\/span>more <\/span>quantities <\/span>are <\/span>externally <\/span>supplied<\/span>. <\/span>A <\/span>Output<\/b>: <\/span>At <\/span>least <\/span>one <\/span>quantity<\/span>–<\/span>is<\/span>, <\/span>produced<\/span>. <\/span>Definitene<\/b>s<\/b>s<\/b>: <\/span>Each <\/span>instruction <\/span>is <\/span>clear <\/span>and <\/span>unambiguo<\/span>u<\/span>s<\/span>. <\/span>Finitene<\/b>s<\/b>s<\/span>: <\/span>For <\/span>all <\/span>cas<\/span>e<\/span>s<\/span>, <\/span>the <\/span>algorithm <\/span>terminates <\/span>after <\/span>a <\/span>finite <\/span>number <\/span>or <\/span>s<\/i><\/b>teps<\/b>. <\/b>Effectiveness<\/b>: <\/span>instruction <\/span>is <\/span>basic <\/span>enough <\/span>to <\/span>be <\/span>carried <\/span>out<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

            Definition<\/b>: <\/span>Algorithms <\/span>that <\/span>are <\/span>definite <\/span>and <\/span>effecti<\/span>v<\/span><\/i>e <\/span>are <\/span>called <\/span>computational <\/b>pr<\/b>oced<\/b>ures <\/b>Example<\/b>: <\/span>Di<\/span>g<\/span>ital <\/span>computer<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

            Definition<\/b>: <\/span>An <\/span>algorithm <\/span>is <\/span>said <\/span>to <\/span>\u00fee <\/span>correct <\/span>if<\/span>, <\/span>for <\/span>every <\/span>input <\/span>instance<\/span>, <\/span>it <\/span>halts <\/span>with <\/span>the <\/span>correct <\/span>output<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

              \n
            1. 5<\/span>. <\/span>The <\/span>study <\/span>of <\/span>A<\/span>lgorithm <\/b>includes <\/b>the <\/b>foll<\/b>owing<\/span>–<\/span>im<\/span>portant <\/b>areas\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              Desig<\/b>n <\/b>an <\/b>a<\/b>l<\/b>g<\/b>orithm<\/span>: <\/span>Creati<\/span>ng <\/span>a<\/span>n<\/span>d <\/span>algorithm <\/span>is <\/span>an <\/span>art <\/span>which <\/span>may never <\/span>be <\/span>f<\/span>ully <\/span>automated<\/span>, <\/span>Different <\/span>design <\/span>strategies<\/span>: <\/span>Divide <\/span>and <\/span>Con<\/span>q<\/span>uer<\/span>, <\/span>Greedy<\/span>, <\/span>Dynamic <\/span>programmi<\/span>n<\/span>g<\/span>.<\/span>.<\/span>..<\/span>etc<\/span>. <\/span>Express <\/b>an <\/b>algo<\/b>rithm: <\/span>A<\/span>l<\/span>gorithm <\/span>specification <\/span>using <\/span>Pseudo <\/span>code<\/span>. <\/span>Validat<\/b>e <\/b>an <\/b>algo<\/b>rithm (<\/span>correctness<\/span>)<\/span>: <\/span>T<\/span>o <\/span>show <\/span>t<\/span>h<\/span>at <\/span>algorithm <\/span>computes <\/span>the correct answer <\/span>for <\/span>all <\/span>possible legal <\/span>inputs<\/span>, <\/span>Analysis <\/b>an <\/b>algo<\/b>rithm<\/span>: <\/span>Find <\/span>the <\/span>time <\/span>a<\/span>nd <\/span>space <\/span>com<\/span>plexity<\/span>. <\/span>Prove <\/span>that <\/span>we <\/span>cannot <\/span>solve <\/span>the <\/span>problem <\/span>any <\/span>faster <\/span>using <\/span>asymptotic <\/span>analysis <\/span>Implementati<\/b>on <\/span>: <\/span>Implementing <\/span>algorithm <\/span>in <\/span>a <\/span>pro<\/span>g<\/span>ramming <\/span>language <\/span>Verification <\/b>:<\/span>–<\/span>Test <\/span>the <\/span>program <\/span>(<\/span>d<\/span>ebugging <\/span>and <\/span>profi<\/span>ling<\/span>)\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

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              1. 3<\/span>. <\/span>PERFORMANCE <\/span>EVALUATION\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n
              2. 1<\/b>. <\/b>Performance <\/b>evaluation\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                A<\/span>s <\/span>an <\/span>algorithm <\/span>is <\/span>executed<\/span>, <\/span>it <\/span>uses <\/span>the <\/span>computers <\/span>CPU <\/span>to <\/span>perform <\/span>operations <\/span>and <\/span>its <\/span>memory <\/span>to <\/span>hold <\/span>the <\/span>program <\/span>and <\/span>data<\/span>. <\/span>An <\/b>efficient algorithm\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

                n<\/span>eeds <\/span>less <\/span>running <\/span>time\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n